Developments in the field of information and communication technologies have spread so rapidly that they have been adopted without measuring the full extent of what is at stake. Recent events have shown us the risks associated with the uncontrolled use of these systems. For States, the major risk linked to these technologies can go as far as a significant loss of independence. The purpose of this article is to popularize this issue in order to make the reader aware of the need for human and financial efforts to be made in cyber defence.

On March 23rd, Le Monde published, in its morning web edition, the story of the "robbery" of the Bangladesh central bank.^[1]. Contrary to popular imagery, of a gang acting in a hooded manner to rob a bank or an armoured van, no weapons or violence had been used at the time. Even more surprisingly, the $81 million stolen came from an account that the central bank held with the New York Federal Reserve. And the robbers are said to be of North Korean nationality...It sounds like the script of the latest action movie produced by the Hollywood studios, but it's not. The robbery did take place, but it took place on the digital network of the international bank transfer system SWIFT...^[2].

This example illustrates that digital space, "cyberspace", is now an extension of the citizen, the company and the State. While the State, in the name of the French people, has control of its land, sea and air space, the question of the control of its cyberspace remains open. However, it may seem incongruous to use the term "control" when referring to cyberspace. Indeed, cyberspace, even if it is not confined to the Internet, shares certain characteristics, in particular the absence of borders. This paradox highlights the difficulty of defining the purpose and limits of sovereignty in cyberspace. Taking as a reference amendment n°cl129 of the bill "for a Digital Republic", the following^[3]In this bill, sovereignty in cyberspace is defined as follows: "Digital sovereignty consists in continuing the Republic and its rights in the digital network dimension. The prodigious growth of information technology and digital networks is shaking up social models and catalyzing new emerging forces: GAFA, NGOs, terrorist groups. Nevertheless, the traditional players in geopolitics, the States, are reacting and taking the measure of the potentialities linked to this technological development, which is unprecedented in its speed of propagation.

Digital sovereignty has therefore become a major issue for the decades to come. To be convinced of this, we need only look at the place taken by cyberspace in human societies, such is the first part of this presentation. Having established this observation, it will be necessary to understand the risks and opportunities of cyberspace in order to grasp the issue of sovereignty in this space. Finally, the possible ways of making the expression of sovereignty in the digital environment credible will be presented.

As mentioned above, the development of cyberspace is changing the relations between individuals and also between individuals and institutions in the sense that it has almost become an indispensable intermediary in daily life.

Thus, according to the annual study "DATA NEVER SLEEPS5.0" [4] ^by the American company DOMO, which specialises in data analysis and business intelligence, for every minute of the day, the following results are obtainedn 2017, AMAZON sells $258 million worth of goods, 4 million videos are viewed on YOUTUBE, UBER "carries" 45,000 passengers and 103 million spam messages are sent. These few non-exhaustive figures show how digital networks have become part of the individual's life. This trend can also be found in French society, first and foremost among individuals. According to an ARCEP study^[5]The Commission also notes that 74% of the French population now uses the Internet daily, with one in two Internet users stating that they cannot do without it for more than two or three days and 70% of the under-60s believe that the Internet is important for feeling integrated into society. A trend which, barring a cataclysm, is not about to be reversed, for three main reasons: the youngest users are the biggest consumers, "the digital transition of French companies, digitalisation, is still far from being achieved", according to the same report and finally the connection to the networks of objects, generally referred to as the IoT^[6]...are only just beginning.

This trend therefore goes beyond the scope of the individual, as administrations and companies are carrying out or have already carried out their digital transformation. Whether it is a fad or a medium- or long-term survival issue, it is a phenomenon that no one can ignore. Without going into more detail on what digitalisation is, it is a question of reviewing organisations and processes through the filter of technologies from IT and networks and adapting them accordingly in order to improve the user/customer experience or to gain a competitive advantage. This vision is also shared by the French Army, which is also accelerating its digital transformation. The "Mister Digital Transformation of the Army", to the question "what are the stakes of the digital transformation", answers it in the following way: "There aretwo main issues. The local issue is aimed at improving the lives of soldiers in the army on a daily basis in the short term [...]. The second, longer-term and strategic issue is that of operational superiority thanks to better control of much more data.”^[7]

In parallel with and reinforcing digitalization, the connectivity of objects is becoming more widespread and makes it possible to measure, control and command remotely or even to automate. One of the most emblematic examples is symbolized by the connected and autonomous car, whose widespread deployment is planned for 2020 or 2040 depending on the scenarios developed by France Stratégie.^[8]. Not only is a multitude of everyday objects (refrigerators, toys, lawnmowers, medical devices) being added a layer of digital and network but also industrial systems. In December 2016, the French government, considering the IoT sector as a major growth lever, unveiled an "Internet of Things" roadmap in December 2016.^[9] to develop the offer of French companies in this field.

Following the example of the scientific and social revolution brought about by the invention of printing in the 15th century, this ^revolution engendered by computers and computer networks offers new opportunities for the development of human societies. However, it also has its other side through the risks and dangers inherent in the use of these technologies.

The extension of cyberspace will therefore continue in the coming decades and become more integrated into the physical world. Will it help to facilitate the work of human beings? This seems obvious when one considers the robotization of difficult and dangerous tasks or the automation of repetitive administrative tasks. Nevertheless, the tools and processes of cyberspace can be more or less easily misused for less happy purposes.

In the register of communications and espionage, the successive revelations of Edward Snowden in 2013 and then of the information site wikileaks in 2017 have once again illustrated this quotation attributed to General de Gaulle:"States have no friends, they only have interests."These revelations have, in fact, shown how the United States of America spies on allies and enemies thanks to its technological power in order to ensure their security or even to benefit their major industries. Admittedly, already at the end of the 1990s, the Americans were also being singled out because of the Echelon system. Moreover, espionage is not unique to the United States. These examples should resonate as further warnings of the need to ensure the confidentiality, integrity and authentication of stored communications and data. What cyberspace today offers our adversaries, among other things, is the ever-increasing interconnection of information and communication systems.

This interconnection widens the area of attack and multiplies the possibilities of neutralising or even destroying key systems of companies, administrations or defence. For example, on 15 and 16 January 2009, Rafale fighter aircraft of the French naval action force were grounded following the infection of the air control system by the Win32/Conficker^[10]. When the technological advances and computer vulnerabilities discovered by researchers every day are put together, it opens up frightening prospects such as the remote control of connected vehicles.^[11]. There are only limits to the modes of action that can only be imagined by their designers: what would be the consequences of not paying unemployment benefits in France? The actions that can be envisaged on digital networks can therefore also be designed in such a way as to reach their target indirectly.

The use of cyberspace to change perceptions and destabilize opinions is also found and recognized in the military concept of influence.^[12] . This consideration underlines the fact that purely technical measures alone cannot suffice to protect its own assessment of the situation and that of its citizens in the case of a State. The example of the last American elections is a demonstration of this. Indeed, Facebook, Google and Twitter, essential Internet platforms, recognised the multiplication of accounts of Russian origin during the last presidential campaign before the American Congress.

The evolution of cyberspace, virtual space, is redistributing the cards in the physical world. State leadership is contested and regulation is still weak because it is not unified. Faced with this pessimistic situation, we must therefore continue our efforts to maintain our strategic independence in cyberspace, following the example of the choices made to possess nuclear weapons or to develop our intelligence capabilities at the end of the first Gulf War.

Our dependence on technology is now such a source of fragility that a major attack on computer systems could disrupt the life of the nation. So, what are the paths that will make it possible to face these threats in the future? France needs to adopt its own solutions in order to retain control of its digital spaces. The factors for achieving this are as much technological as they are human.

In the technological and scientific chapter, quantum physics could hold some of the keys to this issue. Two applications in this field of physics, the quantum computer and the quantum distribution of encryption keys, mobilise a lot of energy. Since the beginning of the 2000s, a real race for the quantum computer has been underway, involving major industrial groups and governments. One of the reasons for this craze lies in the fact that such a computer will be able to break asymmetric encryption systems. It is on these systems that the security of exchanges on the Internet depends to a large extent. Although real quantum computers are not expected to be available for a decade, the problem is being taken seriously, and NIST^[13]organized an international competition to develop the next post-quantum cryptographic standards. At the same time, the RISQ project was launched.^[14] which aims to make France a major international player in the post-quantum transition. Another alternative is to use the second application of quantum physics, quantum key distribution. This technology is already available and China seems to be ahead of the game: on 29 September 2017, it held the first videoconference between Vienna and Beijing using quantum encryption via a satellite.^[15]. Although private companies are already marketing quantum distribution solutions, China's experience represents a major technological leap in terms of the distance travelled and the medium used.

Other possibilities for ensuring control of cyberspace include the design and production of hardware and software. Moreover, in the aforementioned amendment in the introduction, the study of the establishment of a sovereign operating system is included. But this last idea was quickly retooled by Guillaume Poupard, Director General of ANSSI.^[16] at the International Cybersecurity Forum in Lille in 2016. Indeed, the ANSSI now offers a secure operating system, based on Linux called CLIP OS, for the needs of the administration. On the other hand, another more promising avenue is based on developments in artificial intelligence. Its applications in cybersecurity could make it possible to overcome the shortcomings of traditional firewalls and antivirus software. The latter can only deal with known threats and can be easily circumvented because they are predictable. However, the use of artificial intelligence in this field involves mechanisms for analysing user and machine behaviour to detect attacks and other malware.^[17].

While algorithms are destined to take more and more control of computer security, humans are not being left out of the loop. The realization of such computer programs requires a significant scientific and therefore human capital. Taking note of this new situation, the Ministry of Defense under Jean-Yves Le Drian adopted the Cyber Defense Pact.^[18] to achieve the level of excellence necessary to be credible in the face of adversaries. This pact includes a training, research and development component with the creation of the Cyber centre of excellence in Brittany. This top-down approach is complemented from the bottom up by the development of a culture of digital security throughout society. This aspect is included in the national strategy for digital security.^[19]However, in 2012, a Senate report^[20] pointed out the shortcomings of the French system, insisting on the fact that we are lagging behind our major partners, the United States, Great Britain and Germany. The report also refers to the previous reports on the same theme in 2006 and 2008, which show a late awareness. If today, in 2017, the awareness of this issue is very real, the view of recent attacks (Wannacry, Notpetya) impacting French companies and future threats, demonstrate the need to continue to strengthen our capacities in this area and raise awareness of all.

France has assets in cyberspace: real expertise in telecommunications with a developed industrial fabric and high-quality academic research. We must therefore prevent their erosion. It is not insignificant that all over the world military units are being created to operate in cyberspace. If our armies want to be part of the circle of the great armies that master data, they must continue to invest in digital capabilities. Following the example of France in the early days of the air force, we may see an in-depth reorganization of the armed forces to ensure that the military is capable of defending the nation on land, sea, air, space and cyberspace. France and its armies must adopt their own path in cyberspace, bearing in mind General Beaufre's warning: " however, this intense movement of ideas is barely penetrating Europe, where one is generally content after a few distracted readings ofAmerican vocabulary and material because one still believes, without saying so, in the supremacy of material over ideas . ^[21].

Saint-Cyrien of the General Vanbremeersch promotion (01-04), battalion commander Zimmermann chose to serve in the Signals Army. He spent his first years as a platoon leader in the 4th ^{Company of} Command and Signals. In 2007, he joined the Paris Fire Brigade where he will command the 6th Fire and Rescue ^Company from 2011 to 2013. Assigned to the CRR-FR from 2013 to 2015, he served as a desk officer in the engineering branch. He was projected in the Democratic Republic of Congo as Operations Assistant to the MONUSCO staff. A graduate of the Ecole de Guerre, CBA Zimmermann is currently studying at Télécom ParisTech.

^[1]http://www.lemonde.fr/pixels/article/2016/04/26/comment-des-pirates-informatiques-sont-parvenus-a-derober-81-millions-de-dollars_4909101_4408996.html, read on December 10, 2017

^[2] Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication

^[3] National Assembly, 6 January 2016, Bill for a Digital Republic, amendment n°129 presented by Mrs Batho and Mr Grandguillaume

^[4] https://www.domo.com/learn/data-never-sleeps-5, read on December 12, 2017

^[5]ARCEP, report on the state of the Internet in France in 2017, May 2017 (ARCEP, French regulatory authority for electronic communications and postal services)

^[6] IoT, Internet of Thing, Internet of Things

^[7] Terre Information Magazine, Digital Transformation issue, November 2017

^[8] France Stratégie, la voiture sans chauffeur bientôt une réalité, analysis note n°47, April 2016

^[9] Ministry of Economy and Finance, Directorate-General for Enterprise, Roadmap "Internet of Things", 14 December 2016.

^[10] BAUD Michel, La cyberguerre n'aura pas lieu mais il faut s'y préparer, revue Politique étrangère, February 2012

^[11] Le Monde.fr, Deux chercheurs réussir à pirater une voiture à distance, 22 July 2015, accessed 14 December 2017

^[12]The information environment is "the virtual and physical space in which information is received, used and disseminated". It includes cyberspace and social networks. It is rather at the strategic level because of the globalization of information and its techniques. Acting on it aims at identifying opportunities, trends and possibilities in real time to facilitate the achievement of the mission.

RDIA-2012/008 Influence in Support of Operational Commitments, Joint Concept, Doctrine and Experimentation Centre

^[13] NIST: National Institute of Standards and Technology, an agency of the United States Department of Commerce whose role is to promote the economy by developing technology, metrology and standards in conjunction with industry.

^[14] RISQ: Regroupement de l'Industrie française pour la Sécurité post-Quantique (French Industry Grouping for Post-Quantic Security) comprising industrialists and researchers.

^[15]The first inviolable communication was successful, Sciences et Avenir n°850, November 2017

^[16] ANSSI: National Agency for the Security of Information Systems

^[17] Artificial Intelligence and Cybersecurity, CDEC/PEP, Lettre de la prospective n°3-4th semester 2017

^[18] Cyber Defence Pact, Ministry of Defence, February 2014

^[19] National Strategy for Digital Security, General Secretariat of Defence and National Security, October 2015

^[20] Information report on cyber defence, Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Armed Forces, July 2012

^[21] BEAUFRE André, Introduction to Strategy, Hachette, Paris 1963